It seems like a simple question—everyone knows what sex in advertising is, right? Wrong. Some people consider subliminal content to be sex in advertising, whereas others only consider sexual information that is readily visible. Consider the following discussion and categorization as a helpful guide. The following is adapted from (Reichert 2003). Refer to it for a more detailed discussion on this topic.
Definition
As a basic working definition, sex in advertising can be thought of as a sexual appeal. By its very nature, advertising is an applied form of persuasion that attempts to inform, position, convince, reinforce, differentiate, and ultimately sell products and services. As such, sexual appeals are persuasive messages integrated with sexual information into an overall message about a brand.
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Sexual information, defined by Harris (1994) as “any representation that portrays or implies sexual interest, behavior, or motivation” (p. 206), is often integrated within the ad as images, verbal elements, or both. For example, ads can contain images of attractive people clothed in revealing or tight-fitting clothing or contain verbal elements such as double-entendre and sexually suggestive words and phrases. Often, both elements coalesce to create sexual meaning in ads.
Aside from simply containing sexual content, sexual information in ads can be integrated within the message to greater or lesser degrees. For example, some ads contain images of blatant nudity or models engaged in erotic liaisons. On the other hand, some ads contain only a hint of sexual suggestion, or perhaps a subtle innuendo or play on words. In many cases, people consider images of fully clothed, physically attractive women and men to be sexually attractive, and thus, subtle instances of sex in advertising.
Types of Sexual Content Identified in Advertising Research
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Type |
Description |
Nudity/Dress |
Amount and style of clothing worn by models. Examples include revealing displays of the body, ranging from tight-fitting clothing, to underwear and lingerie, to nudity. |
Sexual Behavior |
Individual and interpersonal sexual behavior. Includes flirting, eye contact, posturing, and movement (body language, nonverbal and verbal communication). Sexual interaction between two or more people typically includes, hugging, kissing, voyeurism, and more intimate forms of sexual behavior. |
Physical Attractiveness |
General level of model’s physical beauty. Often incorporates facial beauty, complexion, hair, and physique. |
Sexual Referents |
Allusions and references to objects and events that have sexual meaning by means of double entendre and innuendo. Also includes facilitating factors that enhance or contribute to sexual meaning, such as setting, music, lighting, design elements, camera techniques, and editing. |
Sexual Embeds |
Content interpreted as sexual at the subconscious level. Includes words like “sex,” nonsexual perceptible objects that can connote sexual body parts and sexual actions, and small images of genitalia, body parts, and people. |
From: Reichert (2003), “What is Sex in Advertising?" |
Types of Sexual Information in Advertising
Nudity. It almost goes without saying that people, and revealing displays of their bodies, constitute an essential source of sexual information. In a recent study, participants were asked to think of a sexual ad, and then to identify the characteristics of that ad that made it sexual to them (Reichert & Ramirez, 2000). Without exception, physical aspects of the people in ads—physiques and revealing clothing—were mentioned most often. Common responses referred to chiseled chests, short skirts, tight tops, muscular arms, breasts, bikinis, bare midriffs, and lingerie. The term “nudity” does not imply that models are completely unclothed. In sex in advertising research the term generally refers to the amount and style of clothing worn by models.
Sexual Behavior. Pornography can be defined as “the visual (and sometimes aural) representation of living, moving bodies engaged in explicit…sex acts” (Williams, 1989, p. 30). While sexual content in mainstream advertising omits the sex act, it does include sexually provocative behavioral displays. Models are filmed and photographed in enticing poses and positions—sometimes with other models, sometimes alone. Sexual behavior can be woven into ads in two ways, as individual behavior or interpersonal interaction. With regard to behavior between two models—sometimes more, the degree of explicitness and progressiveness of the encounter can vary from portrayals of voyeurism, to simple displays of affection, to inferred intercourse.
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Physical Attractiveness. According to psychologist David Buss (1994), physical attractiveness among humans is a trait that is central for predicting interpersonal attraction and mate selection. In his cross-cultural study, Buss argues that features of physical appearance, including facial beauty and complexion, play a central role in sexual interest and desire. There is little doubt a link exists between physical attractiveness and sexual interest. For this reason, physically attractive models in advertising can be—and often are—considered examples of sex in advertising.
Sexual Referents. Images and words that refer to sex or that trigger sexual thoughts can also be considered examples of sex in advertising. These suggestive images are less tangible and are more oblique than graphic depictions of nudity or erotic behavior. Examples include innuendo and allusions to sexual information. Something within the ad causes viewers to interpret it as sexual and to stimulate sexual thoughts. Sexual referents are different from other forms of sexual information because they depend on the receiver to interpret the message in the intended way. Related to verbal referents, elements of the ad apart from models can contribute to sexual meaning. The way commercials are filmed, along with design elements, camera effects, music, and lighting, can contribute to the construction of sexual meaning.
Sexual Embeds. Although sex in advertising is a controversial topic in and of itself, nothing in this area raises more debate than the supposed use of sexual embeds. Often referred to as subliminal advertising, sexual embeds are defined as referents or forms of sexual representation designed to be perceived subconsciously (Theus, 1994). Common types of embeds include: the word “sex;” objects that are shaped or positioned like genitalia and sexual acts; and small, hidden images of naked people, body parts, and genitalia. Sexual embeds are integrated into images by ad creators and are intended to go undetected by those viewing the ad. The use of embeds in advertising was popularized by Key in the 1970s and 1980s with the publication of his books Subliminal Seduction (1973) and The Clam-Plate Orgy (1986). Controversy pertains to the existence and supposed effects of sexual embeds.
Additional Resources
Reichert, Tom (2002). Sex in Advertising Research: A Review of Content, Effects, and Functions of Sexual Information in Consumer Advertising. Annual Review of Sex Research, 13, 241-273.
Reichert, Tom (2003). What is Sex in Advertising? Perspectives from Consumer Behavior and Social Science Research. In Tom Reichert and Jacqueline Lambiase (Eds.), Sex in Advertising: Perspectives on the Erotic Appeal (pp. 11-38). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reichert, Tom, and Art Ramirez (2000), “Defining Sexually Oriented Appeals in Advertising: A Grounded Theory Investigation,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 27, Stephen J. Hoch and Robert J. Meyer, eds. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 267-273.
Richmond, David, and Timothy P. Hartman (1982), “An Exploratory Study of Sex Appeal in Advertising,” Journal of Advertising Research, 22 (October/November), 53-61.
Soley, Lawrence, and Leonard Reid (1988), “Taking it Off: Are Models in Magazine Ads Wearing Less?” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 65 (Winter), 960-966.
